If the emergence of the Ayyubids was a direct consequence of the Crusader movement, particularly its political impact on the Near East during the sixth century AH / twelfth century CE, then the Mamluk State grew out of the same historical circumstances in the same geographical region during the middle of the seventh century AH / thirteenth century CE. The Mamluks succeeded in taking over the historical role previously held by the Ayyubids, who had originally brought them as slaves during their childhood and raised them to serve as military instruments in their numerous conflicts and rivalries.
By examining the political and military activities of the new Mamluk State, it becomes evident that it represented a continuation of its Ayyubid predecessor, albeit with exceptional differences linked to the external political conditions surrounding each state on the one hand and the personalities of their rulers on the other. In general, the sultans and rulers of the Mamluk State were nurtured within the framework of the Ayyubid dynasty itself. This factor may largely explain the broad similarities between the two states.
The Mamluks remained attached to the legacy of their Ayyubid masters and teachers, preserving the legal, political, and foreign policy systems they had inherited. Consequently, the study of the Mamluk State and the Mamluk period presents a challenge in distinguishing between those characteristics that were genuinely Mamluk and those whose roots extended deep into the preceding Ayyubid era. For this reason, any examination of the Mamluk period inevitably includes frequent references—whether explicit or implicit—to the Ayyubid experience until the end of the Mamluk State in 1517 CE / 923 AH.
Origins and Early Development of the Mamluks
Who Were the Mamluks?
The term Mamluks (singular: Mamluk) refers to white slaves who were brought from wars conducted by the Abbasids and Ayyubids against non-Arab peoples, whether from Asia, Europe, or the Balkan regions. They were brought into the Islamic world either as captives of war or through purchase.
The Abbasid Caliph al-Mu'tasim (218–227 AH / 833–842 CE) was the first ruler to establish large military corps composed of Mamluks, replacing Arab soldiers whose names had been removed from the military register (Diwan al-Jund). These Mamluks were purchased with state funds and were carefully trained and educated in loyalty and obedience.
They were usually acquired at a young age and raised according to strict regulations within isolated military barracks, separated from the outside world, in order to guarantee their complete loyalty to the ruler.
The System of Training, Education, and Upbringing
The first stage in a Mamluk's life was the study of the Arabic language, both reading and writing. Afterward, he was assigned to teachers who instructed him in the Qur'an. He then proceeded to learn the principles of Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) and the ethics of Islamic law.
Particular attention was devoted to training Mamluks in prayer and the recitation of Prophetic supplications. Their behavior was closely monitored by their instructors and supervisors. If a Mamluk committed an act that violated Islamic etiquette, he would first be warned and then punished. In this way, religious education was combined with military training, horsemanship, proper conduct, and moral discipline.
Throughout all these stages, the master who had purchased the Mamluk carefully supervised his education, upbringing, and training. The relationship between owner and Mamluk was not merely one of master and slave. Rather, it resembled the relationship between teacher and student, father and son, or the head of a family and its younger members. These relationships were based primarily on affection rather than coercion or oppression. Indeed, the Mamluks commonly referred to the man who purchased them as their ustadh (teacher) rather than their master.
Sultan al-Salih Ayyub took particular care to spend time with his Mamluks and strengthen his relationship with them. He personally ensured their well-being, food, drink, and comfort. As a result, they developed immense loyalty and devotion toward him.
Whenever a Mamluk demonstrated exceptional military talent, he would rise through the ranks step by step. He might eventually command other Mamluks, receive land grants from the state, or even attain the rank of amir (commander). Throughout this process, Mamluks generally identified themselves through association with their patron.
Thus, the Mamluks of al-Salih Najm al-Din Ayyub became known as the Salihiyya. The Mamluks of Asad al-Din Shirkuh were called the Asadiyya. During the reign of al-Malik al-Adil, they were known as the Adiliyya. Following his death, his sons—including al-Ashraf Musa and al-Kamil—maintained their own Mamluk corps, giving rise to groups known as the Ashrafiyya and the Kamiliyya.
As a result, the Mamluk presence within the emirates and states of the Near East, particularly in Egypt, continued to expand throughout the late sixth and early seventh centuries AH (twelfth and thirteenth centuries CE).
Historical accounts suggest that the growing influence of the Mamluks increasingly affected the appointment and removal of rulers. Ibn al-Tabataba described the condition of the Abbasid Caliphate during the period of military domination following the assassination of Caliph al-Mutawakkil in 861 CE:
"They weakened the caliphs, and the caliph became like a prisoner in their hands. If they wished, they kept him in power; if they wished, they deposed him; and if they wished, they killed him."
It appears that the Mamluks were also involved in the conspiracy that removed Sultan al-Malik al-Adil II, son of Sultan al-Malik al-Kamil, and elevated Sultan al-Salih Najm al-Din Ayyub to the throne in 1239 CE / 637 AH.
This support encouraged al-Salih to grant them special favor and increase their numbers within his armies. He feared that the various Ayyubid princes, especially his uncle Isma'il, might unite against him. Consequently, he gave the Mamluks considerable freedom and privileges.
Their growing influence, however, caused widespread complaints among the population, forcing the sultan to separate them from urban society. Most of these Mamluks were Turks brought from the Kipchak lands north of the Black Sea and from regions around the Caucasus near the Caspian Sea.
To accommodate them, al-Salih constructed a special fortress on al-Rawda Island in the Nile and made it a principal center of his rule. These Mamluks became known as the Bahri Mamluks (River or Maritime Mamluks), a name derived from their residence on al-Rawda Island in the Nile Delta.
Another interpretation suggests that the designation "Bahri" originated from the maritime routes by which these Mamluks were transported from slave markets in the Caucasus, Asia Minor, and the shores of the Black Sea to Egypt through ports such as Alexandria and Damietta.
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