Historical research on the French Revolution has long remained largely confined to European scholarship, despite the profound transformations it generated across political and social systems, particularly in Europe but also in many other parts of the world. For a long time, this event attracted little attention from Moroccan historians or from scholars in the broader Islamic world, whether during the period in which it occurred or in the modern historiographical tradition.
In recent decades, however, Moroccan universities have witnessed a noticeable development in historical research related to the French Revolution. Within this context comes the work of Dr. Abdelhafid Hammane, professor at Abdelmalek Essaâdi University in Tetouan. His book Morocco and the French Revolution, published by Zaman Foundation (Series: Shurufat, First Edition 2002), is derived from his doctoral thesis.
The book contains 260 pages and includes an introduction followed by a preliminary chapter discussing Morocco’s geopolitical position and its relations with Europe—particularly France. The main body of the work is divided into three chapters:
- Chapter One: How Moroccans became aware of the French Revolution.
- Chapter Two: Morocco’s position toward France during the French expedition to Egypt (1798–1801).
- Chapter Three: Moroccan-French relations during the rule of Napoleon Bonaparte (1801–1815).
The book concludes with a final conclusion, bibliography, and several appendices containing important historical documents.
While preparing this work, the author encountered several difficulties, particularly the scarcity of historical sources. Much of the research relied primarily on French archival documents and manuscripts, with Moroccan sources playing a secondary role.
In this review of Hammane’s work, we attempt to examine the topic of Morocco and the French Revolution by addressing three central questions:
- How did Moroccans learn about the French Revolution?
- What was Morocco’s position regarding the French campaign in Egypt, and how did Moroccans react to it?
- What were the characteristics of Moroccan-French relations during the rule of Napoleon Bonaparte?
Chapter One
Moroccan Awareness of the French Revolution
Historical Context and Morocco’s Awareness of the Revolution
The year 1789, traditionally recognized as the beginning of the French Revolution, raises an important question: Did Morocco become aware of the revolution during the same year it began?
From the Moroccan perspective, this period corresponded with a political transition between three sultans. The year 1789 marked the final year of the reign of Sultan Sidi Mohammed Ben Abdallah. After his death, his son Moulay Yazid ascended the throne in 1790 and ruled for two years. In 1792 he was succeeded by his brother Sultan Moulay سليمان, whose reign coincided with the major political, economic, and intellectual transformations taking place across the Mediterranean world.
The Historical Background of Moroccan-French Relations
Relations between Morocco and France date back to the 16th century. In 1533, the French king Francis I sent the first diplomatic mission to Morocco, led by Pierre de Piton, to the Moroccan capital Fez. The objective of this embassy was to establish diplomatic relations and secure safe ports along the Moroccan coast for French ships, which were frequently attacked by Portuguese and Spanish vessels during the era of overseas expansion following the Age of Geographical Discoveries.
Over time, the goals of French diplomacy gradually evolved from simple cooperation to broader ambitions of political influence.
Further steps toward formal diplomacy occurred in 1577, when King Henry III appointed Guillaume Bérard as the first French consul in Morocco to oversee the interests of French nationals living there.
In the 17th century, after the expulsion of Muslims from Spain in 1609, many settled in Moroccan coastal cities such as Tetouan, Salé, and Rabat. This development contributed to the rise of Moroccan maritime jihad (corsair activity) against European ships. Because Moroccan naval forces inflicted significant damage on European trade routes, European states—including France—were compelled to negotiate treaties with Morocco.
These agreements mainly aimed to:
- Protect French trade and shipping in Moroccan waters
- Secure the release of French prisoners captured by Moroccan corsairs
Following the death of Sultan Moulay Ismail, Morocco experienced a prolonged succession crisis (1727–1757) characterized by instability and conflict among his sons, who competed for power with the decisive influence of the ‘Abid al-Bukhari army.
During this turbulent period—and until 1767—France had no official diplomatic representation in Morocco.
Stability returned when Sultan Sidi Mohammed Ben Abdallah came to power in 1757. He restored internal order and revived diplomatic relations with European states. France soon sent a mission led by Count de Brunyion to Marrakesh to sign a treaty guaranteeing the safety of French merchants and shipping.
How Moroccans Learned About the French Revolution
Morocco’s geographical position played a major role in exposing it to global developments. The country maintained:
- Cultural and trade relations with Sub-Saharan Africa
- Commercial connections through the Atlantic Ocean
- Religious and political ties with the Islamic world
- Strategic contact with Europe across the Mediterranean Sea
Because of these connections, Morocco maintained diplomatic and commercial relations with European states and inevitably came into contact with the political and intellectual upheavals caused by the French Revolution.
The key question remains: How did Moroccan authorities, scholars, and the general public learn about the revolution?
Diplomatic Channels of Information
In 1789, the Moroccan envoy Mohammed al-Zwein was sent on a diplomatic mission to Madrid, Naples, and the Ottoman capital, with a stop in Marseille. He returned to Morocco on 10 July 1790, one year after the outbreak of the French Revolution.
During his stay in the Ottoman Empire—an important political center of the Islamic world—he learned about revolutionary developments in France. His passage through European cities, especially Marseille, also exposed him to the turbulent atmosphere of revolutionary France.
When envoys returned to Morocco, it was customary for them to report directly to the Moroccan government (the Makhzen) on political developments abroad. Therefore, diplomatic missions likely served as one of the earliest channels through which news of the French Revolution reached Morocco.
Additional evidence supporting this conclusion comes from an event in 1791, when the French consul Doriéché informed Sultan Moulay Yazid of the inauguration of the new French revolutionary tricolor flag at the French consulate in Salé.
This suggests that the Moroccan state authorities became aware of the revolution and its transformations between 1790 and 1791.
Moroccan Scholars and Intellectual Awareness
Several Moroccan scholars and historians who lived during this period—such as Abu al-Qasim al-Zayani and Mohammed bin Othman al-Meknassi—held important positions within the Moroccan administration and were often sent on diplomatic missions abroad.
Through their travels in Europe and the Islamic world, they gained insight into political and economic developments. Nevertheless, references to the French Revolution in their writings remain rare and limited.
Two main reasons explain this silence:
1. Intellectual Orientation
Moroccan and Arab historiography of the time primarily focused on events occurring within the Islamic world, paying little attention to developments in European societies, often referred to as Dar al-Kufr.
2. Political Sensitivity
Many historians were closely linked to the Moroccan government. Since Sultan Moulay سليمان held a negative view of the revolution—especially after the execution of King Louis XVI in 1793—scholars may have avoided discussing the event extensively.
In a letter dated 3 May 1793, the Sultan expressed strong condemnation of the revolution and declared his support for European monarchies seeking to restore the French king.
Public Awareness in Morocco
Determining the level of awareness among the Moroccan public is more difficult due to the lack of direct sources. Several factors limit our understanding:
- Absence of explicit references in Moroccan chronicles
- Limited circulation of written information
- Domestic political turmoil between 1789 and 1795
During these years Morocco experienced major internal events:
- The death of Sultan Sidi Mohammed Ben Abdallah
- The short and turbulent reign of Moulay Yazid (1790–1792)
- The consolidation of power by Sultan Moulay سليمان
These developments likely kept Moroccan society focused on internal affairs rather than foreign events.
Sources Through Which Morocco Learned About the Revolution
Information about the French Revolution reached Morocco through two main categories of sources:
Internal Sources
- Moroccan diplomatic missions in Europe
- Moroccan merchants traveling abroad
- Pilgrims returning from Mecca, who reported encountering French forces during Napoleon’s campaign in Egypt
- Moroccan consular representatives in Egypt
- The Ottoman Empire, which circulated official proclamations warning against revolutionary ideas
- European consulates in Morocco, especially in Tangier, which informed Moroccan authorities of European developments
- French expatriates who fled revolutionary turmoil and settled in Moroccan cities
- French newspapers and printed propaganda spreading revolutionary ideas abroad
0 Comments