Various political entities claimed leadership of the resistance against the Iberian invasion, among them the Saadians, who derived their legitimacy from this role, and for whom it became one of the main causes behind the rise of the Saadian state. The occupation of Ceuta in 1415 marked a dangerous turning point in Moroccan history, as it reflected the imbalance of power between the two shores of the Mediterranean and the superiority of the Christians in overrunning the Moroccan coasts, within the wider framework of the geographical discoveries that enabled Europe to dominate the world and harness it to serve its interests. The Iberians seized several coastal regions in Morocco, and this affected the morale of the Moroccans while strengthening among them the spirit of resistance. In this context, the Saadian state emerged.
The Rise of the Saadians as a Resistance Force in the South
At the beginning of the sixteenth century, Morocco lived through troubled times as a result of Wattasid weakness in the face of the Iberian invasion. The Saadians appeared in Sus as resistance leaders, uniting the people of the south around them. During the reign of Muhammad al-Sheikh, they gained a strong reputation through resistance against the Portuguese.
The Saadians were regarded as sharifs, tracing their lineage back to Ali ibn Abi Talib. They settled in the rural areas of the Draa region from the beginning of the ninth century AH, between Zagora and Tamegroute. Some of them later migrated north and settled in Tidsi during the tenth century AH. The noble lineage of the Saadians had a major effect in rallying people around them, as did the support they received from followers of the Jazuliyya order. Thus, Muhammad al-Qa’im was given allegiance in 1511 as leader of the resistance against the Iberians.
The Saadians as a Political Force That Unified the Country
Before the Saadians could bring the country under their authority, they had to struggle on three fronts:
A. The Portuguese Front
This front gave them an opportunity to gain wide popularity and fame because of the victories they achieved. Muhammad al-Qa’im answered the call of the inhabitants of Haha and Chiadma to resist Portuguese encroachment, and his sons, al-A‘raj and al-Sheikh, fought the Portuguese ally Yahya ibn Ta‘fout and defeated him in 1517. The most important act carried out by the Saadians under Muhammad al-Sheikh was the capture of Santa Cruz de Cabo de Gué, that is Agadir, in 1541. This event greatly raised the standing of the Saadians and presented Muhammad al-Sheikh as a sharif and a leader of resistance. Some jurists and chroniclers even compared this event to the Battle of Badr, and this would not be the last time a historical event was likened to that famous battle.
B. The Wattasid Front
Morocco was not without political authority, for the Wattasids had inherited from the Marinids the vital core of Morocco with its capital, Fez. In contrast, the Saadians had acquired legitimacy through resistance in the south. A war between the two powers was therefore inevitable: the first held the keys to Morocco’s capital and its north, while the second won the support of the people through resistance.
This conflict unfolded in two stages:
First stage: the Saadians succeeded in conquering southern Morocco and extending their authority over Marrakesh, Tadla, and Tafilalt in 1523 and 1537. Morocco was then divided into two states: Fez ruled by the Wattasids, and Marrakesh ruled by the Saadians.
Second stage: this stage was marked by the conquest of northern Morocco. Muhammad al-Sheikh attacked Fez and seized it in 1549, putting an end to the rule of the last Wattasid leader, Abu Hassun.
C. The Ottoman Front
Relations between the two sides were marked by caution, after the Saadians refused to enter under Ottoman authority or mention the Ottoman sultan’s name in the Friday sermon. For this reason, the Saadians sometimes sought alliances with the Spaniards occupying Oran against the Ottomans.
The Ottomans tried to restore Abu Hassun al-Wattasi, but the Saadians defeated this attempt in 1554, in what is historically known as the second entry into Fez. The Ottomans also tried to eliminate the Saadians by assassinating Sultan Muhammad al-Sheikh. They succeeded in killing the sultan, but they did not destroy the Saadians, for his son Abd Allah al-Ghalib inherited power. After his victory at the Battle of Wadi al-Laban in 1558, Abd Allah al-Ghalib adopted a policy of balancing powers, allying himself with the Spaniards in order to deter the Ottomans.
The Battle of Wadi al-Makhazin as a Model of Resistance
Fearing for their lives and hoping to secure the throne for his son, the brothers of Sultan Abd Allah al-Ghalib fled to the Ottomans. When al-Mutawakkil, the son of al-Ghalib, became ruler of Morocco in 1574, the two brothers, Abd al-Malik and Ahmad, organized a military expedition to Morocco with Ottoman support and succeeded in removing al-Mutawakkil from power. Al-Mutawakkil fled Fez before their arrival, leaving behind his household and capital without protection, which caused the people and the jurists to despise him and depose him. Abd al-Malik then assumed power.
As for al-Mutawakkil, he fled to Sus, where he still had many followers, before moving to Tangier to seek the help of Sebastian in order to recover the throne that had been taken from him by his uncle. Earlier, he had appealed to the king of Spain, but the latter refused to embark on a new adventure in Africa. Sebastian, however, accepted to help him in return for many privileges along the Moroccan coast. In this way, the most important battle in the modern history of Morocco took place: the Battle of Wadi al-Makhazin.
The Battle of Wadi al-Makhazin (The Battle of the Three Kings)
In the last week of June 1578, a Portuguese fleet of more than one hundred ships set sail from Lisbon. It headed for Cádiz, where it anchored on the 28th of the same month under the command of Dom Sebastian. There he met al-Mutawakkil, and together they moved toward Asilah.
Abd al-Malik was in Salé, and when news reached him of the Portuguese landing at Asilah, he moved northward. On the way, fifty thousand men joined him.
At the beginning of the battle, the Portuguese army gained the upper hand, but the balance soon turned in favor of the Saadians. The battle ended with the drowning of al-Mutawakkil, while Sebastian died from a wound to the head. Abd al-Malik, who had been ill during the battle, also died.
What most distinguished the battle was the death of three kings at once: Abd al-Malik, al-Mutawakkil, and Dom Sebastian. This is what gave it the name “The Battle of the Three Kings.” Jurists of the period also compared this battle to the Battle of Badr. Among them was Ibn al-Qadi al-Maknasi, who said of the battle:
“As for the campaign of our master, nothing like it was ever seen, except perhaps in the time of the Companions, may God be pleased with them. It became widely known, filling ears and hearing, that the number of the unbelievers was one hundred and twenty-five thousand. Of the hundred thousand, most were captured and the rest killed, while the twenty-five thousand remained at sea in their ships. It was a great campaign attended by a vast number of God’s righteous servants, so much so that it closely resembled the Battle of Badr. Our teacher Abu Rashid told me that someone he trusted informed him that a man present at the battlefield would hasten to seize the chance to kill an unbeliever, but before reaching him he would find him already dead, with no visible agent responsible.”
Results of the Battle of Wadi al-Makhazin
Internally
The Battle of Wadi al-Makhazin led to the restoration of Morocco’s political unity, despite the continued existence of some occupied coastal strongholds. Morocco was able to impose its authority and prestige without difficulty.
The Moroccans rallied around the Saadians, and Ahmad al-Mansur in particular came to enjoy immense popularity.
The greatest beneficiary of the battle was Ahmad al-Mansur, who entered Fez crowned with victory and acquired enormous political and religious prestige. The day of the battle was even called the Day of Victory.
Externally
The Kingdom of Portugal was weakened and lost sovereignty over its territory, as its crown passed to the Spanish throne.
The Saadian state gained great prestige and respect in the eyes of Christian powers.
Morocco regained standing in its relations with the Ottoman Empire, which no longer seriously considered annexing far western Morocco.
The Saadians put an end to Iberian ambitions in Morocco after their victory at Wadi al-Makhazin. As a result, they shaped new directions for Moroccan foreign policy with its neighbors, a policy later followed by other Moroccan sultans. This victory gave Morocco great prestige among nations, and that standing remained in place until the defeat at Isly in 1844.
References
Ibn al-Qadi, Al-Muntaqa al-Maqsur, p. 672.
Ibrahim Harakat, Morocco Through History, Part Two, 2000 edition, Dar al-Rashad al-Haditha, Casablanca.
Mohamed Kably, History of Morocco: Updating and Synthesis, 2011 edition, Royal Institute for Historical Research, Rabat.
Lotfi Bouchentouf, The Scholar and the Sultan, 2004 edition, Faculty of Letters and Human Sciences, Ain Chock, Casablanca.
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